Hidden At Home: Can we Unlock Inclusive Education for Girls with Developmental Disabilities in Ethiopia?

Understanding barriers, opportunities, and pathways forward 

Ethiopia has made strides in expanding access to girls’ education through national commitments to Education for All (EFA) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG4). However, access gaps for children with disabilities remain, as the Ethiopia’s Ministry of Education (MOE) estimated that only 11% of children with disabilities were enrolled in primary education (ESDP, 2021). While this figure refers broadly to children with disabilities, the challenges are particularly acute for girls with disabilities. Global evidence shows that “girls with disabilities are more likely to be out of school than both boys with disabilities and girls without disabilities. They are the most excluded group of learners due to multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination” (UNGEI, 2021).  

Even with a fast-growing economy, Ethiopia's low-resource settings and pervasive stigma against children with developmental disabilities (DD) (including intellectual disabilities, autism, and ADHD) and their families make delivering educational and therapeutic services difficult (Birmingham et al., 2024, Tekola et al., 2020). Thus, girls with developmental disabilities are often at the sharpest end of this exclusion: developmental disability combined with gender discrimination amplifies risks of being hidden at home, withdrawn from school, or deprived of learning opportunities. Evidence from other contexts demonstrates the potential of inclusive educational technologies to improve learning and participation for learners with disabilities. Expanding access to appropriate assistive technology (AT) could offer a pathway to reduce these barriers, strengthen participation, and improve retention for girls with developmental disabilities in primary education.  

Early Stakeholder Insights 

From conversations with disability organizations in Ethiopia, several themes are clear: 

1. Stigma and Lack of Inclusive Education Teachers Initial conversations with disability organisations highlight how deeply rooted stigma shapes educational access. Many girls with developmental disabilities are kept hidden at home due to shame, fear of judgement, or concerns about safety. As one stakeholder reflected, without the right awareness or support, families can unintentionally become barriers to children’s rights, highlighting how stigma can prevent girls from entering school at all. Whilst not intending to limit their rights, parents may believe that schooling offers little value for girls with ID/DD, or may fear bullying, violence, or harassment within school environments. Even when girls do enroll, achieving meaningful inclusion is challenging. Teachers frequently lack training, resources, or confidence to support learners with developmental disabilities. Many schools lack basic accessibility provisions, and in some cases, students with disabilities are grouped into a single separate classroom rather than being integrated into mainstream learning. 
   
   
2. The Importance of Assistive Technology Stakeholders also emphasised that assistive technologies could significantly enhance participation and learning for girls with developmental disabilities, but access is limited. Basic AT such as wheelchairs or braille materials are already scarce, and where they do exist, they are typically imported, expensive, and available only in urban centres. AT designed specifically for ID/DD (e.g., communication boards, visual schedules, sensory tools, adapted learning materials) are often unheard of by families and teachers. Expanding awareness, availability, and affordability of AT represents a major opportunity to support inclusive education for girls with ID/DD. 
   
   
3. Policy-Implementation Gaps While national frameworks acknowledge disability inclusion, developmental disabilities remain under-emphasized compared to hearing, vision, or physical impairments. Even where supportive policies exist, implementation is inconsistent. 

These barriers create a cycle of exclusion that begins in the home and is reinforced at school. Prioritizing developmental disabilities in education policy, investing in teacher training, and ensuring access to assistive technology are essential steps for equity in girls’ education. 

Early Policy Insights 

The legal and policy frameworks relevant to inclusive education in Ethiopia include the following: 

1. 1995 Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia 
   Affirms the right to education for all (Art. 41[1]) and mandates support for disadvantaged groups (Art. 41[5]). However, education is not compulsory, and there are no legal obligations for school attendance or inclusive practices (Ministry of Education, 2015, pp. 14–15). 
2. 1994 Education and Training Policy (ETP) 
   Promotes access and responsiveness to diverse needs, stating that education should serve both the "handicapped and the gifted" (MoE, 1994, p. 9). Yet it lacks a definition of inclusive education, does not differentiate types of disabilities, and treats gender and disability as separate issues. 
3. Master Plan for Special Needs and Inclusive Education (2016–2025) 
   Proposes creating Inclusive Education Resource Centres (IERCs), expanding teacher training, and improving data systems (MoE, 2016). However, its emphasis is mainly on sensory and physical disabilities. Intellectual disability is mentioned only in general terms, with no concrete implementation guidelines. 
4. Education Sector Development Programme VI (ESDP VI, 2020/21–2024/25): Structured around six strategic pillars: 

• • System Strengthening, Governance, and Accountability 

• • Promoting Unity in Diversity 

• • Quality Improvement and Labour Market Relevance 

• • Improved Equitable Access to Education 

• • Enhanced Efficiency of the Education System 

• • Strengthened Resilience and Emergency Preparedness 

Pillar 4 includes measures such as inclusive pedagogy training, expansion of IERCs, and development of gender-sensitive curricula (MoE, 2021, pp. 54–55). However, it does not set specific targets for girls with intellectual or developmental disabilities (IDD), nor does it allocate dedicated funding or define accountability systems (MoE, 2021, pp. 23, 54–57). 

Key Gaps in Inclusive Education Policy and Practice 

Despite the existence of national strategies and legal frameworks, several persistent gaps limit the realization of inclusive education. These include: 

• Gender-Specific Barriers: Girls with disabilities, especially those with intellectual disabilities, face compounded exclusion due to cultural stigma, gender roles, early marriage, and lack of protection from abuse. No national framework currently addresses their specific safety and support needs within schools (MoWIE et al., 2020; UN Ethiopia, 2022; Light for the World, 2023). 

• Under-recognition of Intellectual Disability: National strategies often group all disabilities under the broad category of “learners with special educational needs,” without distinguishing between cognitive, sensory, or physical impairments. This leads to the neglect of learners with intellectual disabilities in both program design and implementation (Ministry of Education, 2016; Burningham et al., 2024). 

• Lack of Legal Enforcement: Although Ethiopia has ratified major international frameworks such as the CRPD and CRC, domestic legislation does not include binding provisions to guarantee access or retention in education for children with disabilities. Education is a constitutional right but not a legal obligation, which weakens enforcement. (Ministry of Education, 2015; UN Ethiopia, 2022).   

• Weak Implementation Mechanisms: Key frameworks such as ESDP VI and the Inclusive Education Strategy propose inclusive reforms but lack enforceable mandates, dedicated budgets, or clear accountability systems. Implementation is fragmented and largely donor-driven, resulting in limited reach and sustainability (Ministry of Education, 2021; Ministry of Education, 2022; Inclusive Futures, 2023). 

• Insufficient and Non-Disaggregated Data: National education data is not systematically disaggregated by type of disability or by gender and disability. This statistical invisibility makes it difficult to design targeted interventions and track progress for girls with intellectual disabilities (Ministry of Education, 2023; UNICEF, 2022). 

Unlocking Potential through Action and AT 

The exclusion of girls with developmental disabilities (DD) in Ethiopia stands as a significant barrier to achieving national and global education equity goals. The challenges are compounded by pervasive social stigma that keeps girls "hidden at home". Current policies, while acknowledging inclusion, often fail to specifically address the complex needs of learners with developmental disabilities and lack the necessary legal enforcement and budget allocation.  

To break this cycle of exclusion, further research is needed that centers the voices of girls, their families, and educators, and explores how assistive technology can bridge gaps in access and participation.